Code of Recommendations and Minimum Standards for the Welfare of Dairy Cattle

Animal Welfare Advisory Committee
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
PO Box 2526
Wellington
New Zealand

Code of Animal Welfare No. 4
ISBN 0-477-08561-8
ISSN 1171-090X
June 1992

Preface

The codes of recommendations and minimum standards for the welfare of animals have been prepared by the Animal Welfare Advisory Committee (AWAC), which was established in 1989 by the then Minister of Agriculture to advise him on matters concerning animal welfare.

AWAC consists of members from the following backgrounds: the farming community, animal welfare groups, the veterinary profession, animal behaviour and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. It also includes the chairman of the National Animal Ethics Advisory Committee, an independent chairman and, up until February 1991, a philosopher.

Extensive consultation takes place with industry and other interested groups in the development of codes.

This Code of Welfare for Dairy Cattle was endorsed as a national code at the committee meeting held on 14 November 1991.

The codes of welfare which have been endorsed by AWAC are:

  • Code of Welfare for Circus Animals and Information for Circus Operators
  • Code of Welfare for the Sea Transport of Sheep from New Zealand
  • Code of Welfare for Sheep

The codes of welfare may be revised to take into account changes in practices of animal management and knowledge of animal welfare.

1. Introduction

Animal welfare considerations are becoming increasingly important, both in New Zealand and internationally. Practices which may once have been deemed acceptable are now being reassessed and modified according to new knowledge and changing attitudes. High standards of animal welfare are not only important legally, but also have direct economic benefits and ensure international market access.

Without good stockmanship, animal welfare can never be adequately protected. This code is intended to encourage all responsible for its implementation, and especially the inexperienced, to adopt the highest standards of husbandry.

The code takes account of five basic requirements:

  • freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition
  • the provision of appropriate comfort and shelter
  • the prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment of injury, disease or infection
  • freedom from distress
  • the ability to display normal patterns of behaviour.

2. Legal Responsibilities

2.1 General Responsibilities

The Animals Protection Act 1960 makes provision for the protection of animals and the prevention of cruelty to animals. Departure from a code of conduct is, in itself, not an offence under the Act. Such a departure may, however, assist in determining whether, for example, the suffering of an animal was unreasonable or unnecessary and in that way may assist in securing a conviction for an offence under the Act.

Specifically, certain sections of the Act indicate that an offence is committed if anyone:

  • cruelly ill-treats any animal
  • being the owner or person in charge of any animal, omits to supply the animal with proper and sufficient food, water and shelter
  • being the owner or person in charge of any animal, wilfully or wantonly neglects the animal so that is suffers unreasonable or unnecessary pain, suffering or distress
  • slaughters, brands, mutilates, confines, conveys, or carries any animal in such a manner or position as to cause the animal unnecessary pain, or suffering
  • keeps alive any animal which is in such a condition that it is cruel to keep it alive.

2.2 Dehorning

The Animals Protection Act 1960 states that it is an offence for any person to dehorn, or cause or procure to be dehorned, any animal over the age of 20 months, unless during the whole course of the operation the animal is under the influence of a general or local anaesthetic of sufficient power to prevent its feeling pain.

2.3 Tail Docking

The Animals Protection Act 1960 states that it is an offence for any person to dock, or cause or procure to be docked, the tail of any bovine animals, or causes or procures to be docked, the tail of any bovine animal, unless the docking is performed by or under the supervision of a veterinarian, or in accordance with methods prescribed by the Animals Protection (Docking of Tails) Regulations 1972. These are as follows:

  1. A rubber ring shall be applied to the body of the vertebrae between the joints of the tail at a point not less than 5 cm below the tip of the vulva in a cow and not less than 2.5 cm below the lower tip of the vulva in a calf.
  2. The tail shall then either
    1. be left to drop off of its own accord,
      or,
    2. not less than 7 days after the application of the rubber ring, be severed by the use of a sharp instrument at a point below where the rubber ring has been applied and in such a manner as not to cause discomfort to the animal.

2.4 Castration

The Animals Protection Act 1960 states that it is an offence for any person to castrate, or cause or procure to be castrated, any bovine animal over the age of 9 months, unless the castration is performed by or under the supervision of a veterinarian who must ensure the operation is performed under a local or general anaesthetic of sufficient power to prevent the animal feeling pain.

3. Feeding

3.1 General Requirements

At all times dairy cattle should receive food and water which is adequate to maintain health, vigour, and satisfactory growth and production.

3.2 Calves

Colostrum, or the cow's first milk, contains special nutrients and antibodies to protect the calf from disease, to strengthen it, and to help it develop properly.

It is important that every calf receives colostrum from its dam or from another newly-calved cow as soon as possible after it is born, and certainly within the first 6 hours of its life. Colostrum feeding can continue for several days. Both stored and "manufactured" colostrum may be used.

Calves under 15kg bodyweight at birth (which are usually too premature to survive), as well as those with sever physical defects and painful congenital deformities, should be humanely destroyed (see Section 8).

3.3 Hand-Reared Calves

Calves which have been brought on to a property need special attention. Examine them on arrival to ensure that they are healthy and free from congenital defects.

In general, it is best to allow the calves a few hours to settle before providing the first feed. They will be more interested in drinking once they become accustomed to their surroundings. It is important to assess their requirements individually. The milk is best fed either ad lib. or divided into two feeds daily; for small premature calves, 4-6 feeds daily give better results during the first week of life. As a general guide, milk requirements are of the order of 10-12% of body weight per day, i.e. about 2-4 litres per day during the first week after birth, depending on birth weight, and increasing with age to 4-8 litres per day. Where reconstituted "milks" are used, the supplier's recommendations must be followed.

Digestive upsets can result from overfeeding, rapid changes of diet, or underfeeding. A first feed of diluted milk may help avoid upsets caused by a sudden change of diet.

Calves fed together in a group should be of similar size and, unless being provided with ad lib. feed, all require access to the feed at the same time. Slow drinkers need special attention.

Teach calves to use the feeding equipment. Equipment, including teats, buckets, and calfeterias, must be thoroughly cleaned after use.

Calves need liquid food daily for at least the first 3 weeks of life. From the end of the second week they should also have access to water and dry feeds, in the form of grass, clean hay or meal.

When calves are fed 4-8 litres of milk per day, and are given access to good quality pasture, satisfactory weaning weights (see Table 1) should be achieved at 5-8 weeks of age. It is essential that calves are eating significant quantities of solid food before they are weaned.

3.4 Weaning to Yearling Calves

Adequate feed needs to be provided to allow for growth. Table 1 gives minimum weights for Jersey and Friesian heifers. Figures for Ayrshires, Shorthorns and crossbreeds fall between those for Jerseys and Friesians.

Table 1: Minimum Liveweights

  Age (months) Weight (kg)
Jersey Friesian
Weaning 2 55 70
Mating 15 210 280
Calving 24 320 410

3.5 Adult and Growing Cattle

During growth, pregnancy and lactation, the feed requirements of cattle exceed maintenance levels. Pasture growth may not be of sufficient quantity or quality during certain times of the year to meet these requirements. Owners need to make provision for times of expected shortfall.

Important welfare considerations are:

  • Feed requirements increase markedly in late pregnancy.
  • A cow needs higher levels of feeding during the first 6 weeks of lactation to allow maximum production and lessen the weight loss which might detrimentally affect her health.
  • Supplementary feed, such as hay, silage, crops, or concentrates, should be provided in times of limited pasture growth, i.e. during drought and the winter. (Feed requirements increase during cold, wet and windy weather.)
  • Fresh water should be provided at all times. Water consumption may rise markedly during heat-waves or become available due to being frozen in the winter. Troughs should be cleaned and maintained regularly.

4. Housing and Shelter

4.1 Housing

In New Zealand, very few adult dairy cattle are housed, but calves are often kept indoors during rearing, and require accommodation that is dry and draught free. Housing needs to be constructed with the wellbeing of the animals in mind. Neither calves nor cows should be restrained for prolonged periods in a manner which prevents grooming.

The following general principles apply to all housed cattle:

Space: Enough space should be provided so that all animals can lie down together on a dry area.

Interior surfaces: All fittings and internal surfaces should be constructed to ensure that there are no hazards likely to cause injury.

Ventilation and temperature: Ventilation should be sufficient to remove tome gases and dust, and to maintain airflow without causing draughts.

Lighting: At all times, lighting should be sufficient to enable inspection of all animals kept indoors, but not be so intense as to cause discomfort.

4.2 Shelter

All cattle, young and adult, need shelter from extremes of weather.

Calves: Young calves are very prone to hypothermia (a fall in body temperature below normal that can result in death) and always need to be provided with shelter. Draughty shelters are not satisfactory. Sheds with concrete or slatted floors should be constructed so that they are easy to clean and disinfect.

Deep litter (not tanalised sawdust) is good for the calves' comfort. It should be replaced after each batch of calves and following an outbreak of infectious disease.

5. Husbandry

5.1 Dehorning

Horns can cause severe injuries to other cattle, can damage hides and meat, and can disturb the herd. Horn tips sometimes become ingrowing and should be removed before they penetrate the skin on the skull.

The removal of horns is best carried out in the first few weeks of life.

5.2 Disbudding

Disbudding entails the removal of soft, immature horn tissue (horn "buds"). Those should be removed at 2-3 weeks and no later than 4 weeks of age. The preferred method is cautery. Caustic pencils may also be used.

Care must be taken not to damage the surrounding areas of the skin or the eyes. Caustic pencils should be applied only in fine weather because rain may wash the caustic down the face and into the eyes. Caustic pencils should not be applied to calves held in close confinement or to calves suckling cows, as they may rub the caustic on to one another or damage the udder.

5.3 Docking Tails

Some farmers dock cows' tails to improve hygiene in the milking shed. Where flies are not a serious pest, tails are best not docked.

If a decision to dock is made, see the requirements in Section 2.3 of this code.

5.4 Castration

Bull calves which are to be kept as steers are best castrated between 3 and 6 weeks of age. If animals over 9 months of age are to be castrated see the requirements in Section 2.4 of this code.

5.5 Restraint

A quiet approach when handling cattle is just as important as any method of restraint. Handling facilities are essential for dairy cattle. Facilities need to be adapted to suit the management system being used, and may include yards, crushes and head bails, allowing efficient examination and the treatment of sick and injured animals.

All facilities must be constructed and maintained so as to minimise the risk of injury. Sharp edges and protrusions, such as bolts, should be covered or removed.

Tethers, ropes and hoists: It is preferable not to lasso calves because it frightens them and predisposes them to injury.

Tethered animals must be inspected at least once daily. Fittings may require adjustment to prevent injury.

When equipment is used to lift recumbent cattle it should be inspected frequently to prevent severe distress, injury and bruising. Hip clamps need to be used with the greatest of care.

Roping: In some circumstances cows are roped as a method of restraint. Care is needed to recognise signs of bloat, rope burns or other injuries, and affected cattle may need to be released immediately.

Bull rings: Nose rings for the control of bulls should be smooth and well-fitting, and should not be used to inflict pain.

5.6 Milking

Under the Animals Protection Act 1960, it is an offence to fail to milk out a cow in milk within 18 hours of it being offered for sale.

Calm, quiet handling of cattle is essential at milking time. Cows are more settled if there is a regular milking routine in familiar surroundings. When using new sheds or yards or when introducing heifers to the routine, extra time must be allowed to prevent animals becoming over-excited.

Cows in full milk are especially prone to udder injury. Quiet herding, coupled with elimination of sharp corners and projections in races and yards, will help avoid such injuries. Don't be impatient and avoid the use of dogs unless they are very well controlled.

Regular maintenance of milking machines, avoidance or overmilking, and a high standard of hygiene helps control the spread of mastitis organisms.

5.7 Calving

Cows close to calving need regular inspection. Calving paddocks should provide some shelter and protection from the prevailing wind.

Owners inexperienced in stock management should obtain immediate veterinary advice if cows are having difficulty calving. Heifers should not be left trying to calve longer than 4 hours, and adult cows not longer than 2 hours, before assistance is given or professional help sought. (Calving in this context means vigorous and regular abdominal straining.)

Induced calving: When calving is to be induced, farmers should discuss the procedure thoroughly with their veterinarian and then:

  • Submit only mature healthy cows in good condition for injection
  • Check them daily and attend to sick or depressed animals immediately
  • Milk or strip those cows in which the injection causes premature stimulation of lactation
  • Take extra care to keep premature calves warm and ensure they get adequate feed (calves under 15 kg are best humanely destroyed as they are usually too immature to survive).

6. Disease Control

6.1 General Requirements

Good stockmen know their animals' normal behaviour and recognise early signs of disease or distress. They should take immediate action when such signs occur.

Signs of illness include: listlessness; separation from the herd (except at calving); lameness; changes in milk, faeces or urine; abnormal swellings or growths on any part of the body; bloat; lack of co-ordination when moving; pus or bloody discharge from body orifices; recumbency, evidence of pain such as grunting and/or groaning; extreme nervousness and twitching; salivation; and coughing and difficulty with breathing.

6.2 Disease Control

It is desirable that the dairy herd operator develop a disease prevention and control programme in consultation with his veterinarian and other advisers.

6.3 Inspection

The frequency of inspection of stock depends on the management system used. Situations in which careful inspection is particularly important are:

  • when cows are close to calving
  • when cows are being close grazed, or controlled by electric fences
  • when diseases, such as bloat, facial eczema and grass staggers are likely to break out
  • during natural disasters.

Any injured or ailing animal should be treated and veterinary advice needs to be sought when:

  • there is persistent ill-thrift and poor performance which does not respond to treatment
  • there is serious injury, severe haemorrhage, deep wounds, bone fractures or damage to the eye, and when first aid does not result in satisfactory resolution of the problem
  • when there is concern about the welfare of the animal.

7. Transport

Reference should be made to AgLink FPP892L: Livestock Welfare - Road Transport Code of Minimum Standards, or to the code which supersedes it, i.e. Code of Recommendations for the Transport of Animals in New Zealand.

8. Humane Destruction

Adult cattle should be shot with preferably a captive bolt gun, or another firearm, before "sticking". If the cow is not stuck, it is essential to check the animal within 3-4 minutes of using the captive bolt gun or firearm to ensure the animal is dead and not simply stunned.

If calves are not shot, they may be killed by a firm blow to the head with a blunt instrument which is of sufficient strength to fracture the skull and damage the brain; sticking should take place only after the calf has been stunned.

9. Minimum Standards

9.1 Calves should have colostrum within 6 hours of birth and preferably for the first 4 days; this may include stored colostrum

9.2 Calves must be fed daily. They require sufficient food to maintain health, growth and vigour.

9.3 Calves must have access to clean water or other sources of fluid at least twice a day.

9.4 Calves destined for slaughter (bobby calves) should be given the same care as those that are to be retained. See also AgLink FPP881: Bobbyb Calves - Welfare - Code of Minimum Standards.

9.5 Dairy cows must be fed sufficient food to maintain health, vigour and productivity.

Shelter should be provided for calves for at least the first 3 weeks of life.

9.6 To avoid injury, cattle need to be restrained carefully.

9.7 Cows need to be milked at intervals appropriate to the husbandry system and stage of lactation. No more than 18 hours should elapse between milkings during early lactation (the first 10 weeks) unless the cow is suckling a calf.

9.8 Induced cows should receive twice daily inspection and attention, particularly those with distended udders.

9.9 Particular care must be given to premature calves with respect to feeding and maintenance of body temperature.

9.10 Stockmen need to seek veterinary advice on any health condition about which they are in doubt.

Severely injured or sick cattle which fail to respond to treatment, or any animal suffering in such a way that it is clearly cruel to be kept alive, must be humanely destroyed.

Page last updated: 13 June 2008